Saaroa

Language name and locationː Saaroa, Kaohsiung, Taiwan [Refer to Ethnologue]
语言名称和分布地区: 沙阿鲁阿语 (拉阿鲁哇语Lha'alua), 台湾高雄桃源乡桃源村和高中村

1. t͡saːni / ut͡sani / t͡sa-t͡siɬi	21. ma-pua-ɬɨ-ut͡sani
2. suːa / usua / sa-sua	22. ma-pua-ɬɨ-usua
3. tuːlu / utulu / ta-tulu	23. ma-pua-ɬɨ-utulu
4. paːtɨ / upatɨ / a-upatɨ	24. ma-pua-ɬɨ-upatɨ
5. ku-lima / ulima / la-lima	25. ma-pua-ɬɨ-ulima
6. kɨ-nɨmɨ / ɨnɨmɨ / a-ɨnɨmɨ	26. ma-pua-ɬɨ-ɨnɨmɨ
7. ku-pitu / upitu / pa-pitu	27. ma-pua-ɬɨ-upitu
8. ku-alu / ualu / la-la-alu	28. ma-pua-ɬɨ-ualu
9. ku-sia / usia / sa-sia	29. ma-pua-ɬɨ-usia
10. ku-maːɬɨ / maːlɨ / ʔumara-maːɬɨ	30. ma-tulu-ɬu
11. laiɬa-ut͡sani / ʔumara-rai-t͡sa-t͡sa-t͡siɬi	40. ma-upatɨ-ɬɨ
12. laiɬa-usua / ʔumara-rai-sa-sua	50. ma-lima-ɬɨ
13. laiɬa-utulu / ʔumara-rai-ta-tulu	60. ma-ɨnɨmɨ-ɬɨ
14. laiɬa-upatɨ / ʔumara-rai-a-upatɨ	70. ma-pitu-ɬɨ
15. laiɬa-ulima / ʔumara-rai-la-lima	80. ma-alɨ-ɬɨ
16. laiɬa-ɨnɨmɨ / ʔumara-rai-a-ɨnɨmɨ	90. ma-sia-ɬɨ
17. laiɬa-upitu / ʔumara-rai-pa-pitu	100. (ut͡sani) ɬimiʔuŋu
18. laiɬa-ualu / ʔumara-rai-la-la-alu	200. usua ɬimiʔuŋu
19. laiɬa-usia / ʔumara-rai-sa-sia	1000. ut͡sani ɬimiʔaʔili
20. ma-pua-ɬɨ	2000. usua ɬimiʔaʔili

Linguist providing data and dateː Dr. Chia-jung Pan, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, June 16, 2013.
Referenceː Chia-jung Pan. A Grammar of Lha'alua, an Austronesian Language of Taiwan. Doctorial thesis submitted to the School of Arts and Social Sciences, James Cook University, Australia. March, 2012.
提供资料的语言学家: 潘家荣博士 , 2013 年 6 月 16 日

Other comments: Saaroa or Lha'alua has a decimal system. Lha’alua (known as Saaroa), is an Austronesian language of Taiwan. Lha’alua is spoken in Taoyuan Village and Kaochung Village, Taoyuan District, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan. There are approximately 400 people of Lha’alua. At the moment, 10-15 people are able to speak the language. The language status of Lha’alua is moribund. Most Formosan languages, Lha’alua (Saaroa) language has three distinctions from 1 to 10 (serial counting, human, and non-human), and two distinctions above 11 (human and non-human).

Notes:

1. Serial counting numerals from one to ten are based on the numeral forms (i.e.

roots) of nonhuman and human numerals. Numerals from ‘one’ to ‘four’ are formed

by vowel lengthening. Numerals from ‘five’ to ‘ten’ are formed by prefixing ku- to

the numeral bound root. For the numeral ‘six’, ku- undergoes vowel harmony and

becomes ke- in that the following syllables contain the high central unrounded

vowel [i], transcribed as e. Nonhuman numerals from one to ten begin with the

initial u. For ‘six’, u undergoes vowel harmony and becomes e because the

following syllables consist of the high central unrounded vowel [i], transcribed as

e. It is difficult to make a decision that the initial u is a nonhuman prefix (i.e. u-)

which is added to the numeral root (e.g. ucani ‘one’ as u-cani). The reason can be

attributed by the fact that numerals from ten to ninety, numerals from one hundred

to nine hundred, numerals from one thousand to nine thousand, and numerals

higher than ten thousand all consist of the nonhuman numerals from one to ten as

base to derive human numerals.

In human numerals, ‘one’, ‘two’, ‘three’, ‘four’, ‘five’, ‘six’, ‘seven’, ‘nine’ and

‘how much/how many’ are formed by (C)a- reduplication. a- reduplication applies

when the numeral root is vowel-initial. ‘Eight’ is formed by Ca- triplication. Ca

2. Numerals higher than ten:

Knowledge of higher numerals is regarded as a token of expertise in the language.

At present, old and fluent speakers tend to use Japanese numerals in everyday life,

whereas young and non-fluent speakers employ Mandarin Chinese numerals instead.

In Lha’alua, the distinction between serial counting and nonhuman numerals is

neutralised in numerals higher than ten.

3. Numerals from ten to nineteen:

    Lha’alua has two distinctions above 11 (human and non-human)ː numerals from 11
   to 19 are formed by addition, namely 10+1, 10+2, etc. Numerals from 11 to 19
   can be differentiated in terms of their reference to nonhuman or human participants.
   When expressing nonhuman numerals from 11 to 19, the nonhuman prefix lailha-
   ‘TENS-’ is added to the numeral root from 1 to 9.

For example, lailha-ucani ‘11’ is expressed by lailha- ‘TENS-’ plus ucani ‘one’. The

nonhuman numerals are used in counting numbers from 11 to 19. The formation of

human numerals from 11 to 19 is indicated by the human prefix ’umara-rai- ‘TENS-’

added to the human numeral stem from 1 to 9. For example, ’umara-rai-ca-cilhi ‘11’
is expressed by ’umara-rai-' 'TEENS-' plus ca-cilhi ‘one'.

4. Numerals from ten to ninety:

In Lha’alua, numerals from 10 to 90 are formed by multiplication, namely 10 x 1,

10 x 2, etc, indicated by addition of the circumfix ma-…-lhe. Some numeral bound

roots undergo morphophonemic alternations. For example, -cani of the numeral ‘10’

becomes -a. For ‘20’, -sua becomes -pua. For ‘80’, -alu becomes -ale. The expression

of ma-tulu-lhu ‘thirty’ constitutes an exception for numerals from 10 to 90. Due to

vowel harmony, ma-…-lhe becomes ma-…-lhu. The nonhuman numerals are used in

counting numbers from 10 to 90. The formation of human numerals from 10 to 90 is

indicated by the prefix mata- referring to a human participant and the nonhuman

numerals from 10 to 90 as a base in derivation. For instance, mata-ma-pua-lhe ‘20’ is

formed by mata- plus ma-pua-lhe.

5. Numerals from one hundred to nine hundred: In Lha’alua, the numerals from 100 to

900 are formed by multiplication, namely 100 x 1, 100 x 2, etc, indicated by the

word lhimi’ungu ‘hundred’. Numerals from 100 to 900 can be divided into two

groups in terms of their referents or participants: nonhuman or human. The

expression of nonhuman numerals from 100 to 900 is indicated by the

nonhuman numerals from 1 to 9 together with the word lhimi’ungu ‘hundred’. For

example, ucani lhimi’ungu ‘100’ is expressed by ucani ‘1’ and lhimi’ungu ‘hundred’.

It is not necessary to specify the numeral ucani ‘one’ when expressing ‘one hundred’;

that is, just lhimi’ungu ‘hundred’ can denote ‘one hundred’. When ucani ‘one’ is not

overtly specified, it only refers to nonhuman referents rather than human

participants.

The nonhuman numerals are used in counting numbers from 100 to 900. Human

numerals from 100 to 900 are formed by the human prefix mata- added to the

nonhuman numerals from 100 to 900 as a base in derivation. For instance, mata-

ucani lhimi’ungu ‘100’ is expressed by mata- and ucani lhimi’ungu.

6. Numerals from one hundred to nine hundred:

There is a difference between numerals from 10 to 90 (including lower numerals)

and numerals from 100 to 900 (including numerals from 1000 to 9000). While the

numerals from 10 to 90 form a phonological and grammatical word, numerals from

100 to 900 consist of two separate phonological and grammatical words.

7. Numerals from one thousand to nine thousand:

In Lha’alua, numerals from 1,000 to 9,000 are formed by multiplication, namely

1,000 x 2, 1,000 x 3, etc, indicated by the word lhimi’a’ili ‘thousand’. There is a

clear distinction between nonhuman and human numerals. Nonhuman numerals

from 1000 to 9000 are indicated by the nonhuman numerals from 1 to 9 together

with the word lhimi’a’ili ‘thousand’.

8. Numerals higher than ten thousand:

Formosan languages like Thao ban ‘10,000’, Saisiyat ban ‘10,000’ and Atayal

maN ‘10,000’ borrowed words for ‘10,000’ from non-AN sources (Blust 2009:275).

These three forms are loan words from Taiwanese Southern Min ban ‘10,000’.

Unlike other Formosan languages, there is no word for ‘10,000’ in Lha’alua. The

formation of numerals from 10,000 to 90,000 is formed by multiplication, namely

10 x 1 x 1000, 10 x 2 x 1000, 10 x 3 x 1000, etc. Numerals from 10,000 to 90,000

have a basic distinction in terms of their reference to nonhuman or human

participants. The nonhuman numeral ‘10,000’ is indicated by the nonhuman

numeral ma-a-lhe ‘10’ together with the word lhimi’a’ili ‘thousand’. Nonhuman

numerals from 20,000 to 90,000 are formed by a nonhuman numeral from 2 to 9,

the nonhuman numeral ma-a-lhe ‘10’ as well as the word lhimi’a’ili ‘thousand’. For

instance, usua ma-a-lhe lhimi’a’ili ‘20,000’ is expressed by usua ‘2’, ma-a-lhe ‘10’ and

lhimi’a’ili ‘thousand’.

The nonhuman numerals are used in counting numbers from 10,000 to 90,000.

Human numerals from 10,000 to 90,000 are indicated by the prefix mata- (referring

to human participants) added to the nonhuman numerals from 10,000 to 90,000 as

a base in derivation. For example, mata-ma-a-lhe lhimi’a’ili ‘10,000’ is expressed by

mata-, ma-a-lhe ‘10’ and lhimi’a’ili ‘thousand’..

Similar to numerals from 100 to 900 and numerals from 1,000 to 9,000, the

expression of ‘10,000’ consists of two phonological and grammatical words.

Unlike ‘10,000’, the formation of numerals from 20,000 to 90,000 is composed of

three phonological and grammatical words.

Lha'alua Phonemic Chart:

Consonants:

	Bilabial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stops	p,(pʰ),(b)	t, (tʰ)		k,(kʰ),(ɡ)	ʔ
Fricatives	v	s			(h)
Affricates		ts, (tsʰ)	(tɕ), (dz)
Nasals	m	n		ŋ
Lateral		l
Trill or flap		r, ɾ
Lateral		ɬ

Notes between traditional spellings and IPA transcriptionsː

c = IPA [t͡s]; lh = IPA [ɬ], e = IPA [ɨ]

Vowelsː

	Front	Mid	Back
High	i, iː	ɨ	u, uː
High-mid			o
Low-mid	(ɛ)		(ɔ)
Low		a, aː

Noteː Long vowel is written double in traditional way. Loan phonemes (in the parentheses on the above tables)ː There are plenty of loan words in Lha’alua, many of which were introduced during the Japanese occupation period (1895-1945). Apart from Japanese, words were borrowed from Mandarin Chinese, Taiwanese Southern Min, and other aboriginal languages in the neighbouring area, e.g. Bunun. In my corpus, nine consonant phonemes and two vowel phonemes are found exclusively in
loan words.

Language name and locationː Saaroa, Kaohsiung, Taiwan [Refer to Ethnologue]
语言名称和分布地区: 沙阿鲁阿语, 台湾南部高雄县桃源乡桃源村和高中村

1. caáni / ucáni / caciɬi	21. mapúsanə ucáni
2. suua / usua / sasua	22. mapúsanə usúa
3. tuulu / utulu / tatulu	23. mapúsanə utúlu
4. paatə / upatə / aupatə	24. mapúsanə upátə
5. kulima / ulima / lalima	25. mapúsanə ulíma
6. kənəmə / ənəmə / aənəmə	26. mapúsanə únəmə
7. kupitu / upitu / papitu	27. mapúsanə upítu
8. kualu / ualu / lalaalu	28. mapúsanə ualu
9. kusia / usia / sasia	29. mapúsanə usia
10. kumaaɬə / maalə / ʔumaramaaɬə	30. matúluɬ
11. láiɬa ucáni	40. maupátəɬ
12. láiɬa usúa	50. malímaɬ
13. láiɬa utúlu	60. maə́nəməɬ
14. láiɬa upátə	70. mapítuɬ
15. láiɬa ulíma	80. maáləɬ
16. láiɬa únəmə	90. masiʔaɬ
17. láiɬa upítu	100. ɬimiuŋu
18. láiɬa ualu	200.
19. láiɬa usia	1000. ɬimiaili
20. mapúaɬ	2000.

Linguist providing data and dateː Prof. Paul Jen-kuei Li, Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, March 21, 1993.
提供资料的语言学家: 李壬癸教授, 1993 年 3 月 21 日

Other comments: Saaroa has a decimal system. There are three forms of cardinal numbers from one to ten in Saaroa. The first one is used in series counting, the second for counting things and the third for counting human beings.

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